Sulphur cathodes, sulphur cathode materials, and apparatus and methods for making same

ABSTRACT

A method for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon is provided. Elemental sulphur is dissolved in liquid ammonia to form a sulphur-ammonia solution. Conductive carbon is soaked in the sulphur-ammonia solution to embed the conductive carbon with the dissolved sulphur. The liquid ammonia in the sulphur-ammonia solution can be removed as gaseous ammonia to yield sulphur-embedded conductive carbon. The sulphur-embedded conductive carbon can be used to manufacture sulphur cathodes. Such sulphur cathodes and batteries incorporating such sulphur cathodes are provided.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Some embodiments of the present invention relate to apparatus for storing and discharging energy. Some embodiments relate to metal-sulphur batteries and/or metal-sulphur electrodes. Some embodiments relate to a sulphur cathode of a metal-sulphur battery. Some embodiments relate to a sulphur cathode of a lithium-sulphur battery. Some embodiments relate to methods for embedding sulphur into activated carbon. Some embodiments relate to carbon with sulphur embedded therein. Some embodiments relate to batteries having electrodes made from carbon with sulphur embedded therein.

BACKGROUND

Carbon materials such as activated carbon can provide a useful material for the manufacture of electrodes. For example, carbon-based materials can be designed as highly porous materials so as to have a high surface area. The pore sizes in the material can be quite small to provide a high surface area. Carbon materials can also offer good adsorption (i.e. adhesion of ions onto the surface of the material) and low resistance (i.e. efficient electron and ion movement at high current). Examples of potential applications for such carbon materials include batteries, including metal sulphur and lithium-sulphur batteries.

A growing area of interest in rechargeable battery technology is lithium-sulphur (Li—S) batteries. A lithium-sulphur battery has a lithium-metal anode and a sulphur cathode. Sulphur and lithium have theoretical capacities of 1672 or 1675 mA h g⁻¹, respectively. As such, a theoretical energy density of a Li—S battery is 2500 Wh kg⁻¹, which is one of the highest theoretical energy densities among rechargeable batteries. As such, lithium-sulphur batteries provide a promising electrical energy-storage system for portable electronics and electric vehicles.

Lithium-sulphur batteries operate by reduction of sulphur at the cathode to lithium sulphide: S+16Li

8Li₂S (2.4V-1.7V). The sulphur reduction reaction to lithium sulphide is complex and involves the formation of various lithium polysulphides (Li₂S_(x), 8<x<1, e.g. Li₂S₈, Li₂S₆, Li₂S₄, and Li₂S₂).

In the case of some lithium-sulphur batteries, the anode can be pure lithium metal (Li^(∘) oxidized to Li⁺ during discharge), and in some cases the cathode can be activated carbon containing sulphur (S^(∘) reduced to S²⁻ during discharging). An ion-permeable separator is provided between the anode and the cathode, and an electrolyte used in such system is generally based on a mixture of two organic solvents such as 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME) and 1,3-dioxolane (DOXL) containing 1 M of lithium bis(trifluoromethane sulfonyl)imide (LiN(SO2CF3)2) and 1% lithium nitrate, or the like.

Potential advantages of lithium-sulphur batteries include a high energy density (theoretically 5 times although practically 2-3 times more than lithium-ion), there is no requirement for top-up charging when in storage (whereas a lithium-ion battery may require 40% regular recharging to prevent capacity loss), the active materials are lighter as compared to lithium-ion, and the materials used in the manufacture of lithium-sulphur batteries are more environmentally friendly and less expensive than lithium-ion batteries (since no rare earth metals are required).

However, there are challenges for lithium-sulphur battery systems that have not yet been addressed sufficiently to make them commercially useful. For example, lithium polysulphides (Li₂S_(x) where x is an integer between 3 and 8) dissolve in the electrolyte and further reduce to insoluble lithium polysulphides (e.g. Li₂S₂ to Li₂S₁) that form on the anode in the battery systems. Such formations create a loss of active material, resulting in a short life cycle (i.e. fewer discharging and charge cycles).

Also, because sulphur is electronically and ionically insulating, sulphur needs to be embedded into a conductive matrix to be used in a lithium sulfur battery. Carbon is a potentially useful material for lithium-sulphur battery electrodes because it has a porous structure that supports the deposition of lithium polysulphide, and can help to minimize electrode expansion during discharge.

There remains a need for technologies that improve the capabilities of lithium-sulphur battery systems. Additionally, there is a general desire for improved apparatus and methods for making a sulphur cathode. There is also a general desire for an improved method for embedding sulphur into a conductive matrix such as carbon, e.g. activated carbon.

The foregoing examples of the related art and limitations related thereto are intended to be illustrative and not exclusive. Other limitations of the related art will become apparent to those of skill in the art upon a reading of the specification and a study of the drawings.

SUMMARY

The following embodiments and aspects thereof are described and illustrated in conjunction with systems, tools and methods which are meant to be exemplary and illustrative, not limiting in scope. In various embodiments, one or more of the above-described problems have been reduced or eliminated, while other embodiments are directed to other improvements.

In one aspect, a method for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon is provided. The conductive carbon is soaked in a sulphur-ammonia solution to embed the conductive carbon with at least a portion of the sulphur contained in the sulphur-ammonia solution.

In one aspect, a method for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon is provided. Elemental sulphur is dissolved in liquid ammonia to form a sulphur-ammonia solution. The conductive carbon is soaked in the sulphur-ammonia solution to embed the conductive carbon with at least a portion of the dissolved sulphur, and sulphur-embedded conductive carbon is recovered. The conductive carbon can be activated carbon. After the conductive carbon has been soaked in the sulphur-ammonia solution, ammonia can be removed as gaseous ammonia. The gaseous ammonia can be compressed and recycled for further use in the process.

The elemental sulphur can be dissolved in the liquid ammonia in a pressurized environment, for example a pressure of between about 110 psig and 135 psig at room temperature. The elemental sulphur can be dissolved in the liquid ammonia at a temperature of between −20° C. and 20° C. The pressure of the pressurized environment can vary depending on the vapor pressure of ammonia at the selected temperature, e.g. the pressure of the pressurized environment can be between 45 and 55 psig if the temperature is approximate 0° C., or between 10 and 50 psig if the temperature is approximately −20° C. The resultant sulphur-ammonia solution can contain between 5% and 30% by weight dissolved sulphur.

The step of soaking the conductive carbon in the sulphur-ammonia solution can be carried out in a pressurized environment, e.g. having a pressure of about 110 to about 135 psig at room temperature.

The sulphur-embedded conductive carbon may contain between about 30% to about 85% sulphur by weight. The sulphur-embedded conductive carbon can be used to produce a sulphur cathode, e.g. for use in a metal-sulphur battery such as a lithium-sulphur battery. A method of operating such a battery may cycle the battery only to 75% depth-of-discharge (DoD) when charging and discharging the battery to minimize formation of insoluble polysulphides.

An apparatus for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon can have a sulphur dissolving tank having a first inlet for flowing liquid ammonia into the sulphur dissolving tank, a second inlet for loading elemental sulphur into the sulphur dissolving tank, and an outlet for withdrawing a sulphur-ammonia solution from the sulphur dissolving tank; and a sulphur impregnating tank in selective fluid communication with the sulphur dissolving tank, the sulphur impregnating tank having a first inlet connected to the outlet of the sulphur dissolving tank, a second inlet for adding conductive carbon into the sulphur impregnating tank, a release valve for evaporating the liquid ammonia, and a release conduit for discharging gaseous ammonia.

In addition to the exemplary aspects and embodiments described above, further aspects and embodiments will become apparent by reference to the drawings and by study of the following detailed descriptions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Exemplary embodiments are illustrated in referenced figures of the drawings. It is intended that the embodiments and figures disclosed herein are to be considered illustrative rather than restrictive.

FIG. 1 is a flow diagram of an example embodiment of a method for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon.

FIG. 2A is a flow diagram of a further example embodiment of a method for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon. FIG. 2B is a flow diagram of a further example embodiment of a method for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of an example apparatus for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon.

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of an example apparatus for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon using a sulphur measuring tank.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of an example apparatus for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon using a high pressure metering pump.

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of an example apparatus for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon using a high pressure metering pump and a sulphur measuring tank.

FIG. 7 shows the profile of the discharge curve from Galvano charge and discharge tests for three cells in one example.

FIGS. 8A, 8B and 8C show the discharge capacity of various LiS battery cells performed for up to 30 charge-discharge cycles.

FIG. 9 shows the discharge capacity (mAh/g) and capacity retention (%) of a representative LiS battery cell cycled in the soluble range (75% DoD) for 100 cycles of charge and discharge.

FIG. 10 shows the discharge capacity (mAh/g) and capacity retention (%) of another representative LiS battery cell cycled in the soluble range (75% DoD) for 217 cycles of charge and discharge.

FIG. 11 shows the discharge capacity (mAh/g) and capacity retention (%) of another representative LiS battery cell cycled in the soluble range (75% DoD) for 100 cycles of charge and discharge.

FIGS. 12A, 12B and 12C show the determination of a minimum ratio of electrolyte to sulphur mass. FIG. 12A shows ES ratio versus capacity. FIG. 12B shows ES ratio versus initial open-circuit potential (OCP). FIG. 12C shows initial open-circuit potential (OCP) versus capacity.

FIG. 13 shows the initial two cycles of galvanostatic charge/discharge (GCD) tested at 1 C/g at 100% depth of discharge (DoD).

FIGS. 14A, 14B, 14C and 14D show capacity and capacity retention for LiS batteries with sulfur impregnated lignin-based AC through 500 cycles tested at 1 C/g at 100% DoD and 75% DoD, respectively. FIG. 14A shows a cell cycled at a depth of discharge (DoD) of 75% (after two cycles at 100% DoD) and FIG. 14B shows a cell cycled at a depth of discharge (DoD) of 100%. FIG. 14C shows capacity and FIG. 14D shows percentage capacity retention for the 40^(th) to the 500^(th) cycles, respectively.

DESCRIPTION

Throughout the following description specific details are set forth in order to provide a more thorough understanding to persons skilled in the art. However, well known elements may not have been shown or described in detail to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the disclosure. Accordingly, the description and drawings are to be regarded in an illustrative, rather than a restrictive, sense.

As used in this specification, the terms “about” or “approximately” mean a value within +/−10% of the stated value unless specified otherwise, and either one of these terms connotes that strict compliance with the numeric value recited is not critical but some variation is permissible and still within the scope of the various embodiments described herein.

As used herein, the term “conductive” means electrically conductive.

As used herein, the term “conductive carbon” means carbonaceous materials that allow the flow of electric current with little resistance. Conductive carbon has a level of conductivity (σ) of at least 100 siemens per metre (S/m), including e.g. at least 150, at least 200, at least 250, at least 500, at least 750, at least 1000, at least 1250, at least 1500, at least 1750, at least 2000, at least 2500, at least 3000, at least 3500, at least 4000, at least 4500 or at least 5000 S/m. Some examples of conductive carbon are activated carbon, graphite, graphene, carbon nanotubes, and the like, or any desired mixture thereof. Any suitable source of biomass can be used to produce carbon that can be subjected to further chemical and/or thermal processing to yield activated carbon. For example, biomass such as coconut husk, lignin, or the like may be processed to produce biochar and/or hydrochar that can be further processed to yield activated carbon.

For example, for one form of activated carbon used in the examples described below (YPF), a conductivity of 1322 S/m is reported (N. Rey-Raap et. Al Measurement, An Electrical Conductivity Translator for Carbons, 2014, 56, 215-218). Those same authors report that graphite has a conductivity of 5023 S/m. Another source says that amorphous carbon (including activated carbon) has a conductivity of 1.25-2000 S/m while graphite has a conductivity of 2000-3300 S/m (Helmenstine, ThoughtCo. Table of Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity, 608499, 27 Jun. 2019). Fabiono reports activated carbon has a conductivity of 250-800 S/m (Fabiano Gomes Ferreira de Paula et. al., Structural Flexibility in Activated Carbon Materials Prepared under Harsh Activation Conditions, Materials 2019, 12, 1988). A. Barroso-Bogeat et. al., Electrical conductivity of activated carbon-metal oxide nanocomposites under compression: a comparison study, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2014, 16, 25161-25175 reported that typical activated carbon has >194 S/m using a compression at 750 kPa.

The inventors have found that liquid ammonia is an effective carrier to load sulphur into conductive carbon, for example to produce a sulphur electrode. Based on this, the inventors have invented a method and apparatus for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon. The sulphur-embedded conductive carbon may be used as a sulphur cathode of a metal-sulphur battery, e.g. a lithium-sulphur battery.

FIG. 1 shows an example embodiment of a method 100 for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon.

At step 102, sulphur, e.g. elemental sulphur, is dissolved in liquid ammonia (NH₃) to form a sulphur-ammonia solution. In some embodiments, the conditions at step 102 are selected to promote the solubility of sulphur in the liquid ammonia. In some embodiments, the liquid ammonia is anhydrous liquid ammonia.

At step 104, conductive carbon is soaked in the sulphur-ammonia solution to impregnate/embed the conductive carbon with sulphur. In some embodiments, the conductive carbon supplied at step 104 is activated carbon.

At step 106, liquid ammonia is removed. In some embodiments, liquid ammonia is removed as gaseous ammonia. For example, liquid ammonia may be exposed to open air and liquid ammonia then evaporates and is released as gaseous ammonia. Removal of ammonia yields the desired conductive carbon embedded with sulphur product.

A further example embodiment of a process 200 for embedding sulphur in conductive carbon is illustrated in FIG. 2A.

At step 202, elemental sulphur is supplied to a suitable vessel. The elemental sulphur (S^(∘)) can be any form of sulphur, including crown-shaped S₈ molecules representative of the typical stable form of sulphur. Other forms of elemental sulphur include S₆, S₇, S₉, S₁₀, S₁₁, S₁₂, S₁₃, S₁₄, S₁₅, S₁₆, S₁₇, and S₁₅ rings, or linear or branched forms and are believed to also be soluble in liquid ammonia and are encompassed in various alternative embodiments. In some embodiments, the elemental sulphur is granular elemental sulphur (S^(∘)). In some embodiments, the elemental sulphur is powdered elemental sulfur. In some embodiments, granular elemental sulphur may be used to avoid potential difficulties in removing any undissolved fine powdery sulphur from the liquid ammonia solution in subsequent processing steps.

Any suitable reaction vessel can be used. In some embodiments, the reaction vessel is a pressure reactor. In some embodiments, the pressure reactor has a fine screen provided at its outlet, to facilitate separation of the resulting ammonia-sulphur solution from any undissolved sulphur. In some embodiments, the fine screen is made from an inert material such as stainless steel. In some embodiments, the screen has a mesh size that prevents particles having a diameter larger than about 25 μm from passing through the screen.

At step 204, the pressure in the vessel containing the elemental sulphur is reduced. In some embodiments, the pressure is reduced below atmospheric pressure at step 204. In some embodiments, step 204 is carried out under vacuum. In some embodiments, step 204 is carried out at close to zero psig. In some embodiments, the pressure level at step 204 is at least about 12 psi below an atmospheric pressure, including between about 12 psi and about 14 psi below an atmospheric pressure, including e.g. at least 12.5, 13.0, or 13.5 psi below an atmospheric pressure, or any pressure therebetween. In one example embodiment, the pressure during step 204 is reduced to approximately 12.2 psi below an atmospheric pressure. In some embodiments, a pressure feed such as a high pressure metering pump is used for carrying out step 208 to supply liquid ammonia described below, and in such embodiments step 204 can be omitted.

In some embodiments, at step 206 the temperature of the vessel containing the elemental sulphur is reduced below room temperature to increase sulphur solubility in the liquid ammonia. In some embodiments, the temperature at step 206 is between about −20° C. and about 20° C., including any value therebetween, e.g. −18° C., −16° C., −14° C., −12° C., −10° C., −8° C., −6° C., −4° C., −2° C., 0° C., 2° C., 4° C., 6° C., 8° C., 10° C., 12° C., 14° C., 16° C. and 18° C. In some embodiments, step 210 is conducted at the temperature that is set at step 206.

As an example, the solubility of sulphur is approximately 38% (by mass) at −20° C. at 27.6 psig of vapor pressure but decreases as temperature increases, as shown in Table 1 below. Unlike other liquids such as carbon disulphide, the solubility of sulphur decreases with increasing temperature in liquid ammonia. In some embodiments, based on the data as set forth in Table 1, the solubility of sulphur (% by mass) in liquid ammonia can be predicted by Equation (1), where T is the temperature in ° C. (R²=0.9816):

Solubility=−0.344T+32.41  (1)

In some embodiments, based on empirically determined data as set forth in Table 1, the vapor pressure of liquid ammonia can be predicted by Equation (2) (R²=0.9997):

Vapor Pressure=0.0397T ²+2.4449T+46.321  (2)

TABLE 1 Solubility of sulfur in liquid ammonia (% by mass) at various temperatures. Sulfur solubility Temperature (% by mass) LNH₃ vapor LNH₃ vapor (° C.) in LNH₃ pressure (psig)¹ pressure (kPa) 35 19.65 181.1 1350 20 25.77 109.6 857.1 0 33.90 47.6 429.4 −20 38.28 12.9 190.2 ¹See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia_(data_page).

At step 208, liquid ammonia is added to the vessel containing the elemental sulphur. In some embodiments, the liquid ammonia is supplied from a pressurized reservoir of ammonia at 209. In some embodiments, the pressurized reservoir of ammonia at 209 is maintained in the range of about 110 to about 135 psig at room temperature, including any value therebetween, e.g. 115, 120, 125, or 130 psig. In one example embodiment, the pressurized reservoir of ammonia 209 is maintained at a pressure in the range of about 110 to about 132 psig at room temperature. Without being bound, it is believed that the pressure in reservoir 209 is determined primarily by the vapor pressure of the liquid ammonia contained therein, which varies with temperature. Thus, the pressure at which step 210 following step 209 is conducted can be the partial pressure of ammonia at the temperature at which step 210 is conducted. The pressure of the pressurized environment can vary depending on the vapor pressure of ammonia at the selected temperature, e.g. the pressure of the pressurized environment can be between 45 and 55 psig if the temperature is approximate 0° C., or between 10 and 50 psig if the temperature is approximately −20° C.

In some embodiments, the pressure differential between the vessel containing the elemental sulphur and the pressurized reservoir of ammonia drives the flow of liquid ammonia into the vessel containing the elemental sulphur. In some embodiments, a pump such as a high pressure metering pump is used at step 208 to deliver liquid ammonia to the vessel containing the elemental sulphur. Without being bound, use of such a pump may enhance the solubility of sulphur in the liquid ammonia as a higher transfer efficiency of liquid versus gaseous ammonia can be achieved.

At step 210, the elemental sulphur is dissolved in the liquid ammonia to provide a sulphur-ammonia solution. Any suitable method of dissolution may be used, for example the sulphur-ammonia solution may be shaken or stirred to encourage the solubilization process of sulphur, sonication may be used, or a metal stirrer may be used. In some embodiments, the sulphur-ammonia solution is shaken, stirred and/or sonicated for a period of time, e.g. in the range of about 5 to about 20 minutes, including any period therebetween e.g. 10 or 15 minutes.

Without being bound by theory, various ionic forms of sulphur such as S₃ ⁻, S₃N⁻, and S₄N⁻ may exist in liquid ammonia. It is believed that once the solution is depressurized, e.g. at step 224 as described below with reference to this example embodiment, the liquid ammonia will self-vaporize and these sulphur species will be returned to their elemental forms.

At step 212, any undissolved sulphur may be removed from the sulphur-ammonia solution. In some embodiments, at step 212 the sulphur-ammonia solution is transferred to a second vessel without transferring any undissolved solid sulphur to remove the sulphur-ammonia solution from the undissolved sulphur. In some embodiments, a high-pressure pump can be used to transfer the sulphur-ammonia solution. In some embodiments in which the first vessel is a pressure reactor with a screen provided at its outlet, the screen is used to allow the sulphur-ammonia solution to flow through while retaining any undissolved sulphur.

In some embodiments, at step 214, the total amount of dissolved sulphur in the second vessel can be calculated using the gravimetric change of the first vessel relative to the second vessel. This calculation can allow for the determination of the amount of conductive carbon that can be impregnated with the dissolved sulphur.

In some embodiments, the percentage of dissolved sulphur in the sulphur-ammonia solution obtained at step 212 by weight is between about 5% and about 30%, including any value therebetween, e.g. 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28% or 29% w/w.

The desired amount of conductive carbon is subsequently soaked in the sulphur-ammonia solution to impregnate/embed the conductive carbon with sulphur. In some embodiments, the desired amount of conductive carbon is directly combined with the sulphur-ammonia solution.

In the illustrated embodiment, at step 216, the desired amount of conductive carbon is supplied in a third vessel provided. In some embodiments, the third vessel is provided with a stainless steel mesh with a mesh opening size of about 25 μm at its opening, for example to capture and retain activated carbon which might otherwise drift away by reason of air currents.

At step 218, the pressure in the vessel containing the conductive carbon is reduced under vacuum. In some embodiments, the pressure level at step 218 is reduced to at least about 12 psi below an atmospheric pressure, including between about 12 psi and about 14 psi below an atmospheric pressure, including e.g. at least 12.0, 12.5, 13.0, or 13.5 psi below an atmospheric pressure, or any pressure therebetween. In one example embodiment, the pressure level at step 218 is reduced to about 12.2 psi below the atmospheric pressure. In alternative embodiments, a pump such as a high pressure metering pump can be used to transfer the sulphur-ammonia solution at step 218 rather than reducing the pressure. In such embodiments, the pressure accordingly is not reduced at step 218.

At step 220, the sulphur-ammonia solution is supplied to the vessel containing the conductive carbon. Introduction of the sulphur-ammonia solution increases the pressure within the vessel containing the conductive carbon. In some embodiments, introduction of the sulphur-ammonia solution increases pressure in the vessel to in the range of about 110 to about 150 psig at room temperature, including any value therebetween, e.g. 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140 or 145 psig. In one example embodiment, the pressure at step 220 increases to in the range of about 126 to about 147 psig at room temperature. In some embodiments, step 220 is conducted at ambient or room temperature.

At step 222, sulphur from the sulphur-ammonia solution is adsorbed onto the conductive carbon under pressure to maintain the ammonia substantially in liquid form. In some embodiments, adsorption is carried out for an adsorption period. Any suitable length of time may be used for the adsorption period. In some embodiments, the adsorption period is between about 30 seconds and about 10 minutes, including any value therebetween, e.g. 45 seconds, 1 minute, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 minutes. Longer adsorption periods could be used if desired.

At step 224, ammonia is removed as gaseous ammonia by reducing the pressure in the vessel. In some embodiments, a needle valve is provided in fluid communication with the vessel to allow the pressure to be reduced.

In some embodiments, the output of fluid passing through a needle valve provided at the bottom of the vessel is supplied to a receiver vessel containing a suitable liquid such as water, so that bubble flow can be monitored as an indicator of gaseous ammonia flow exiting the receiver vessel. This is referred to as a blow-down or wet collection method, and drying of the resultant sulphur-impregnated activated carbon is subsequently required prior to its use.

In some embodiments, the ammonia vapor in the vessel is released by slowly opening a needle valve located at the top of the vessel, leaving the sulphur-impregnated carbon within the vessel for subsequent collection at step 226 as described below. This is referred to as a blow-up or dry collection method, and the sulphur-impregnated activated carbon obtained by this method does not require drying prior to collection or use.

If desired, the gaseous ammonia obtained from step 224 can be recovered for subsequent re-use in the process by using a compressor to compress the recovered gaseous ammonia back to liquid ammonia.

At step 226, the sulphur-impregnated conductive carbon is collected, for example by removal from the bottom of the vessel. In some embodiments, the vessel is a pressure reactor.

With reference to FIG. 2B, an alternative embodiment of a method 200′ is illustrated. Method 200′ is generally similar to method 200, and like steps are illustrated with the same reference numerals and are not further described herein. Method 200′ differs from method 200 in that a pump such as a high pressure metering pump can be used to move the liquid ammonia or ammonia-sulphur solution rather than a vacuum source. Thus, step 204 is omitted, and liquid ammonia is supplied by the pump at step 208. Similarly, step 218 is omitted and sulphur-ammonia solution is supplied directly by the pump at step 220.

In some embodiments, the sulphur-impregnated conductive carbon collected at step 226 is further processed to manufacture electrodes, for example to provide sulphur cathodes for use in metal-sulphur batteries, e.g. lithium-sulphur batteries.

In some embodiments, the amount of conductive carbon used to absorb dissolved sulphur can be about 20% to about 100% of the weight of dissolved sulphur, including any value therebetween, e.g. 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90 or 95% w/w. Any desired value can be used in alternative embodiments. The final sulphur content (wt. %) in the sulphur-impregnated activated carbon can be in the range of about 30% to about 85%, including any value therebetween, e.g. 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75 or 80% w/w.

Method 200 may be carried out in apparatus 300 for embedding conductive carbon with sulphur. With reference to FIG. 3 , apparatus 300 has a sulphur dissolving tank 302. In some embodiments, sulphur dissolving tank 302 is a pressure reactor.

Sulphur dissolving tank 302 is provided with suitable conduits and valves to permit the steps of method 200 to be carried out. Liquid ammonia may enter into sulphur dissolving tank 302 from a pressurized ammonia supply tank 303 through a conduit 304.

In some embodiments, a stirrer [not shown] may be provided in sulphur dissolving tank 302 to mix the sulphur and liquid ammonia to encourage the solubilization process of the sulphur. In some embodiments, sulphur dissolving tank 302 can be uncoupled from apparatus 300 so that sulphur dissolving tank 302 can be subjected to vigorous shaking, whether by hand or by using any suitable shaking apparatus, to dissolve the sulphur in the liquid ammonia. In alternative embodiments, any suitable method such as sonication, a metal stirrer or the like may be provided to assist with dissolving sulphur in sulphur dissolving tank 302.

Apparatus 300 has a sulphur impregnating tank 306. Sulphur dissolving tank 302 and sulphur impregnating tank 306 are in selective fluid communication with each other. In some embodiments, sulphur dissolving tank 302 and sulphur impregnating tank 306 are connected by a pipe 310. A suitable valve can be provided in pipe 310 to maintain the respective pressures within sulphur dissolving tank 302 and sulphur impregnating tank 306 and to control the flow of fluids therebetween.

A suitable vacuum source 308 is provided to help provide negative pressure within dissolving tank 302 and sulphur impregnating tank 306 when desired. Although a single vacuum source 308 has been shown in the illustrated embodiment, two separate vacuum sources and/or high-pressure metering pumps could be provided in alternative embodiments.

In some embodiments, a predetermined amount of conductive carbon is loaded in sulphur impregnating tank 306, and the pressure in sulphur impregnating tank 306 is then reduced by placing sulphur impregnating tank 306 under vacuum. The solution of liquid ammonia and dissolved sulphur from sulphur dissolving tank 302 can then flow into sulphur impregnating tank 306, which will result in sulphur impregnating tank 306 becoming pressurized, allowing the dissolved sulphur to be embedded into the conductive carbon in sulphur impregnating tank 306.

Sulphur impregnating tank 306 has a release valve 312 to depressurize sulphur impregnating tank 306. Once sulphur impregnating tank 306 is depressurized, liquid ammonia evaporates as gaseous ammonia and then exits from sulphur impregnating tank 306 via an exiting pipe 314. In some embodiments, release valve 312 is located more proximate to an upper end than a lower end of impregnating tank 306; the illustrated view is schematic in nature only.

In some embodiments, a gas monitor 316 is provided to monitor the release of gaseous ammonia from sulphur impregnating tank 306. In some embodiments, gas monitor 316 is a reservoir filled with suitable liquid, such as water, so that the release of ammonia from sulphur impregnating tank 306 can be monitored.

In some embodiments, sulphur-embedded conductive carbon can be collected from a lower end of sulphur impregnating tank 306 once most or all of the ammonia has been released from sulphur impregnating tank 306 and optionally dried. Sulphur-embedded conductive carbon may be used as a sulphur cathode material for use in the manufacture of a metal-sulphur battery, such as a Li—S battery.

In some embodiments, a battery containing such a sulphur-embedded conductive carbon may be cycled through charge and discharge cycles extending only to about 75% depth-of-discharge (DoD), to help prevent the formation of insoluble polysulphides, thereby prolonging the life of the battery. In some embodiments, a battery containing such a sulphur-embedded conductive carbon contains an electrolyte in a volume of between about 30 to about 80 μL/mg of sulphur, including any range or subrange therebetween, e.g. 35, 40 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70 or 75 μL/mg of sulphur, to help minimize the formation of insoluble polysulphides.

In some embodiments, ammonia can be collected and fed to a compressor 318 so that it can be recompressed to liquid ammonia for use again in the process conducted by apparatus 300.

A further example embodiment of an apparatus 400 for embedding conductive carbon with sulphur is illustrated in FIG. 4 . Components of apparatus 400 that are similar to apparatus 300 are illustrated with reference numerals incremented by 100 and are not further described herein (i.e. sulphur dissolving tank 402, ammonia supply tank 403, conduit 404, sulphur impregnating tank 406, vacuum source 408, pipe 410, release valve 412, exiting pipe 414, gas monitor 416 and compressor 418).

Apparatus 400 differs from apparatus 300 in that a sulphur measuring tank 420 is provided downstream of sulphur dissolving tank 402. After sulphur has been dissolved in liquid ammonia in sulphur dissolving tank 402, sulphur measuring tank 420 is placed under vacuum to draw the sulphur-ammonia solution into the interior thereof, while undissolved sulphur is retained in dissolving tank 402, for example by positioning a suitable screen over the outlet of dissolving tank 402. The total amount of dissolved sulphur present in sulphur measuring tank 420 is then calculated based on the gravimetric difference between tanks 402 and 420 to calculate the amount of conductive carbon to be placed in sulphur impregnating tank 406 prior to addition of the sulphur-ammonia solution from sulphur measuring tank 420.

A further alternative example embodiment of an apparatus 300′ for embedding conductive carbon with sulphur is illustrated in FIG. 5 . Apparatus 300′ is generally similar to apparatus 300, and like components are illustrated with the same reference numeral and are not further described herein. Apparatus 300′ differs from apparatus 300 in that liquid ammonia is supplied from a liquid ammonia supply tank 303 to a high pressure metering pump 308′ that is used to supply both ammonia and ammonia-sulphur solution, rather than using a vacuum to depressurize the receiving containers. High pressure metering pump 308′ receives liquid ammonia from tank 303 via line 304-1, and supplies liquid ammonia to dissolving tank 302 via line 304-2. The sulphur-ammonia solution is then fed back to high pressure metering pump 308′ via line 310-1, and to sulphur impregnating tank 306 via line 310-2. Liquid ammonia can be compressed via compressor 318 and then fed back to liquid ammonia supply tank 303. While a single high pressure metering pump 308′ is illustrated, in alternative embodiments separate high pressure metering pumps could be provided to facilitate the necessary fluid flow within apparatus 300′.

A further alternative example embodiment of an apparatus 400′ for embedding conductive carbon with sulphur is illustrated in FIG. 6 . Apparatus 400′ is generally similar to apparatus 400, and like components are illustrated with the same reference numeral and are not further described herein. Apparatus 400′ differs from apparatus 400 in that liquid ammonia is supplied from a liquid ammonia supply tank 403 to a high pressure metering pump 408′ that is used to supply both ammonia and ammonia-sulphur solution. High pressure metering pump 408′ receives liquid ammonia from tank 403 via line 404-1, and supplies liquid ammonia to dissolving tank 402 via line 404-2. The sulphur-ammonia solution is then fed back to high pressure metering pump 408′ via line 410-1, then to sulphur measuring tank 420 via line 410-2, and to sulphur impregnating tank 406 via line 410-3 (or directly if desired). While a single high pressure metering pump 408′ is illustrated, in alternative embodiments separate high pressure metering pumps could be provided to facilitate the necessary fluid flow within apparatus 400′.

EXAMPLES

Further embodiments are more specifically described with reference to the following examples, which are intended to be illustrative and not limiting in nature.

Example 1—Activated Carbon

Example 1 was conducted at room temperature. Granular elemental sulphur was loaded in a sulphur dissolving tank that is a pressure reactor. The sulphur dissolving tank has a fine stainless-steel screen with a sieve size of approximately 25 μm. The screen was placed at the bottom of the sulphur dissolving tank. Once the sulphur was loaded, the sulphur dissolving tank was placed under vacuum to reduce the pressure to lower than about 12.2 psi below atmospheric pressure. Alternatively, if a high-pressure metering pump is available, the high-pressure metering pump can be used rather than vacuum.

Liquid ammonia was transferred from a liquid ammonia reservoir to the sulphur dissolving tank by pressure difference between the liquid ammonia reservoir (about 110 psig at room temperature) and the sulphur dissolving tank.

Sulphur was dissolved in the liquid ammonia to form a sulphur-ammonia solution in the sulphur dissolving tank. The sulphur dissolving tank was shaken for about 10 minutes after being disconnected from the liquid ammonia reservoir to dissolve the sulphur.

A second pressure reactor was placed under vacuum to reduce the pressure to less than about 12.2 psi below atmospheric pressure. The sulphur-ammonia solution was drained from the sulphur dissolving tank into the second pressure reactor. The undissolved solid sulphur was retained in the sulphur dissolving tank by the screen placed at the bottom of the sulphur dissolving tank, while the liquid sulphur-ammonia solution was permitted to exit to the second pressure reactor, to separate undissolved sulphur from the desired sulphur-ammonia solution.

The amount of dissolved sulphur was calculated using gravimetric changes between the sulphur dissolving tank and the second pressure reactor.

A specific amount of activated carbon was weighed based on the amount of dissolved sulphur as shown in Table 2.

The specific amount of activated carbon was loaded into a sulphur impregnating tank and the sulphur impregnating tank was then placed under vacuum to reduce the pressure to less than about 12.2 psi below atmospheric pressure.

The sulphur-ammonia solution was transferred from the second pressure reactor to the sulphur impregnating tank. The dissolved sulphur is absorbed onto the activated carbon for about 1 minute at a pressure of about 110 psig.

The sulphur impregnating tank was then depressurized and gaseous ammonia was released from the sulphur impregnating tank through a needle valve. Exit of the gaseous ammonia through the needle valve was monitored by allowing the gas to bubble through a beaker filled with water.

The sulphur-impregnated activated carbon was collected from the bottom of the sulphur impregnating tank. The recovered sulphur-impregnated activated carbon can be used as a cathode material, for example for the preparation of lithium sulphur batteries.

As shown in Table 2 below, the sulphur content in the sulphur-impregnated activated carbon ranged from 48% to 67%.

TABLE 2 Sulphur content in tested examples. Trial Step Description #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 202 S° (g) added for the 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.9 5.0 5.0 preparation of LNH3-S° solution (Vessel R1) 208 LNH₃ (g) to dissolve S° 17.7 23.5 25.1 28.7 18.3 20.7 in R1 210 Dissolved S° (g) in R1 3.6 2.0 3.7 2.7 4.9 2.2 vessel 212 Mass (g) of LNHs + °S° 21.3 25.5 28.8 31.4 23.2 22.9 solution in R1 after undissolved S° removal 210, 212 S (%) dissolved in the 16.9%  7.8% 12.8%  8.6% 21.1%  9.6% LHN₃-S° solution in R1 (after undissolved S° removal) 214 Undissolved S° (g) in 1.4 3.0 1.3 2.2 0.1 2.8 R1 212 → Mass (g) of LNH₃-S° 16.9 22.6 23.8 27.5 18.0 20.4 220 solution after (The undissolved S° removal LNH₃-S° and transfer(to R2 solution vessel which is 220) transferred from R1 to R2) 212 → Mass loss (g) of the 4.4 2.9 5.0 3.9 5.2 2.5 220 NH₃-S° solution after Loss transfer from 212 to during the 220 transfer Transfer eff. (%) of the 79.3% 88.6% 82.6% 87.6% 77.6% 89.1% stage from LNH₃-S° solution from R1 (212) R1 (212) to Vessel R2 to R2(220) (220) 220 Dissolved S° (g) in in 2.86 1.77 3.06 2.36 3.80 1.96 the LNH₃-S° solution in R2 222 Amount (g) of the 11.2 13.2 9.2 15.1 12.5 12.9 LNH₃-S° solution and AC in Vessel R3 (which is 222) 220 → Mass loss (g) of the 5.7 9.4 14.6 12.4 5.5 7.5 218 NH₃-S° solution after Loss transfer from R2 (220) during the to R3 (218) transfer Mass loss (g) of S° in 1.0 0.7 1.9 1.1 1.2 0.7 stage from R2 (220) after transfer 220 (R2 to from R2 (220) to R3 R3 vessel) (218) 212 → Transfer eff. (%) of the 66.3% 58.4% 38.7% 54.9% 69.4% 63.2% 220 LNH₃-S° solution from R2 to R3 216 Type of Carbon CAC ABC1 ABC1 CAC-T CBC-T-2 CBC-T-1 (Commercial Produced AC) by inventors 216 Amount (g) of AC used 1.73 0.63 1.05 1.10 1.40 0.90 222 Amount (g) of the 9.6 11.9 7.9 14.6 12.4 12.5 LNH₃-S° solution and AC in R3 (which is 222) 222 Total mass of LNH₃ 11.3 12.5 8.9 15.7 13.8 13.4 and S°-impregnated AC under pressure 222 (S° S° (g) absorbed in AC 1.6 0.9 1.0 1.3 2.6 1.2 absorbed in AC) 226 Mass (g) of S° 3.4 1.6 2.1 2.4 4.0 2.1 impregnated AC in 226 (vessel) 226 Sulfur content (%) in 48.25%  59.5% 49.1% 53.3% 65.2% 57.2% (resultant S°-impregnated AC S°-AC) Trial Step Description #7 #8 #8 #10 #11 #12 202 S° (g) added for the 5.1 5.0 4.9 5.0 4.9 5.0 preparation of LNH₃-S° solution (Vessel R1) 208 LNH₃ (g) to dissolve S° 20.6 19.5 23.0 19.0 21.0 13.8 in R1 210 Dissolved S° (g) in R1 2.7 2.4 2.9 2.3 1.9 2.1 vessel 212 Mass (g) of LNH₃ + °S° 23.3 21.9 25.9 21.3 22.9 15.9 solution in R1 after undissolved S° removal 210, 212 S (%) dissolved in the 11.6% 11.0% 11.2% 10.7%  8.3% 13.2% LHN₃-S° solution in R1 (after undissolved S° removal) 214 Undissolved S° (g) in 2.4 2.6 2.0 2.7 3.0 2.9 R1 212 → Mass (g) of LNH₃-S° 20.3 19.3 20.8 18.9 19.8 13.4 220 solution after (The undissolved S° removal LNH3-S° and transfer(to R2 solution vessel which is 220) transferred from R1 to R2) 212 → Mass loss (g) of the 3.0 2.6 5.1 2.4 3.1 2.5 220 LNH₃-S° solution after Loss transfer from 212 to during the 220 transfer Transfer eff. (%) of the 87.1% 88.1% 80.3% 88.8% 86.5% 84.3% stage from LNH₃-S° solution from R1 (212) R1 (212) to Vessel R2 to R2(220) (220) 220 Dissolved S° (g) in in 2.35 2.12 2.33 2.02 1.64 1.77 the LNH₃-S° solution in R2 222 Amount (g) of the 15.1 14.3 16.3 14.6 13.9 12.2 LNH₃-S° solution and AC in Vessel R3 (which is 222) 220 → Mass loss (g) of the 5.2 5.0 4.5 4.3 5.9 1.2 218 LNH₃-S° solution after Loss transfer from R2 (220) during the to R3 (218) transfer Mass loss (g) of S° in 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 stage from R2 (220) after transfer 220 (R2 to from R2 (220) to R3 R3 vessel) (218) 212 → Transfer eff. (%) of the 74.4% 74.1% 78.4% 77.2% 70.2% 91.0% 220 LNH₃-S° solution from R2 to R3 216 Type of Carbon ABC1 ABC 1-2 ABC1-1 AHC1 AHC1-2 AHC1-1 produced by inventors 216 Amount (g) of AC used 0.90 0.90 1.10 1.00 0.90 0.80 222 Amount (g) of the 14.9 14.1 15.2 14.2 13.7 12.2 LNH₃-S° solution and AC in R3 (which is 222) 222 Total mass of LNH₃ 15.8 15.0 16.3 15.2 14.6 13.0 and S°-impregnated AC under pressure 222 (S° S° (g) absorbed in AC 1.7 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.1 1.6 absorbed in AC) 226 Mass (g) of S° 2.6 2.4 2.8 2.5 2.0 2.4 impregnated AC in 226 (vessel) 226 Sulfur content (%) in 65.7% 63.2% 60.7% 60.3% 55.8% 66.8% (resultant S°-impregnated AC S°-AC)

The various calculation steps are further summarized below:

Preparation of LNH₃+° S solution

-   -   1. (Step 202) The empty mass (M1) of R1 is recorded.     -   2. (Step 202) 5 g of S° is pre-charged in R1, The mass (M2) of         R1+S° is recorded.     -   3. R1 is degassed (vacuumed) for the transfer of LNH₃.     -   4. LNH₃ is transferred. The mass (M3) of R1+S°+LNH₃ is recorded.         In this step, R1 has LNH₃+S° solution (liquid) and an         undissolved S° (solid).     -   5. The empty mass (M4) of R2 is recorded, and R2 is degassed for         the transfer of the LNH₃+S° solution from R1.     -   6. The LNH₃+S° solution is transferred to R2 from R1. The mass         (M5) of the R2+LNH₃+S° solution is recorded.     -   7. The mass (M6) of R1+LNH₃+S° solution+undissolved S° is         recorded (the NH₃+S° solution is still left in R1). M6 is for         the calculation of the transfer efficiency of the LNH₃+S°         solution.     -   8. (Step 212) LNH₃+S° solution (the remaining solution) in R1 is         discharged in a fumehood. The mass (M7) of R1+undissolved S°         solution is recorded.         The determination of sulfur content in the LNH₃+° S solution     -   The actual mass of S° added in R1=M2−M1 (the initial mass of         solid S° in R1)     -   The mass of LNH₃ transferred in R1=M3−M2 (amount of LNH₃ in R1)     -   The mass of LNH₃+S° solution transferred to R2 from R1=M6−M5         (available mass of LNH₃+S° solution)     -   The mass of undissolved S° in R1=M7−M1 (the remaining mass of         solid S° in R1)     -   The mass of dissolved S° in the LNH₃+° S         solution=(M2−M1)−(M7−M1)

${{{Sulfur}{content}{in}{the}{}{LNH}_{3}} + {{{^\circ}S}{solution}}} = \frac{\left( {{M2} - {M1}} \right) - \left( {{M7} - {M1}} \right)}{\left( {{M2} - {M1}} \right) - \left( {{M7} - {M1}} \right) + \left( {{M3} - {M2}} \right)}$

Without being bound by theory, the inventors believe that if in this example metering high pressure pumps were used to transfer liquid ammonia and reactor temperature was lowered, the sulphur content in the sulphur-impregnated activated carbon may be higher. The transfer efficiency could be increased by using a high-pressure metering pump.

Example 2—Sulphur-Embedded Activated Carbon as a Sulphur Cathode

Table 3 shows the major chemical and adsorptive properties (iodine values and surface area) of bioactivated carbon and CAC (a commercially available activated carbon YP50F obtained from Calgon used as a control). The ABC1 (activated carbon produced by the inventors from lignin as a source of carbon biomass) had 97.1% carbon, 2,919 mg/g iodine value, 2,784 m²/g surface area, and 14.3 μm mean particle size, while CAC had 94.5% carbon, 1,796 mg/g iodine value, 1,731 m²/g surface area, and 5.4 μm mean particle size. Other experiments performed by the inventors confirmed that the benchmark activated commercial carbon used in these examples (CAC), YP50F from Calgon, has approximately 5-6 times higher resistance than graphite, while activated biocarbon produced by the inventors in house from lignin has approximately 2-2.5 times higher resistance than graphite.

TABLE 3 Chemical and adsorptive properties of carbon products used for sulfur impregnation. Carbon Ash Iodine Surface Mean content content value area particle Carbon ID (%) (%) (mg/g) (m²/g) size (μm) ABC1 produced 97.10% 0.54% 2,919 2,784 14.3 by inventors CAC 94.50% 0.35% 1,796 1,731 5.4

Table 4 summarizes test results from LiS batteries prepared using S°-impregnated biocarbon-based cathodes. ABC1 (activated carbon produced from lignin by the inventors) was impregnated with elemental sulfur at 59.46% (denoted as ABC1+60% S) and 49.08% (denoted as ABC1+50% S), respectively. CAC (commercially available control activated carbon) was also impregnated with sulfur at 48.25% (denoted as CAC+50% S).

For the fabrication method for the cathode of the LiS battery, the S°-impregnated carbon product, polyvinyl fluoride (PVF as a binder), and graphite (as a conductivity enhancing agent, given the high sulphur content of the sulphur-impregnated carbon product which reduced its conductivity) were formed into a paste using N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP). The mass ratio of this carbon-sulfur (C—S) composite was 60:20:20, respectively. These C—S composites were coated on aluminum foil and cathodes (15 mm in diameter) were prepared for the assembly of LiS batteries (CR 2032 type) in the Ar-filled glove box.

Four cells were assembled in each group. The electrolyte (containing 1 M of lithium bis(trifluoromethane sulfonyl)imide (LiN(SO₂CF₃)₂) and 1% lithium nitrate in 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME) and 1,3-dioxolane (DOXL)) was added to each cell using an electrolyte volume per 1 mg of sulfur in the cathode ranging from 100 to 115 μL. Once all LiS batteries were assembled, the initial voltage of the button cell was measured. As presented below, all button cells showed an initial voltage (>2.3 V) with consistency except for one button cell in each of the ABC1+60% S and CAC+50% S groups. It was believed that the cathode and anode may have misaligned during assembly resulted in a direct connection which led to the malfunction of these particular LiS batteries.

TABLE 4 LiS batteries fabricated using S-impregnated activated biocarbon cathodes. Carbon type Coin cell ID(#) Voltage (V) ABC1 + 60% S (S°-impregnated S8-5 2.355 ABC1 at sulfur S8-6 0.000 content of 59.46%) S8-7 2.310 S8-8 2.370 ABC1 + 50% S (S° impregnated S9-9 2.384 ABC1 at sulfur S9-10 2.388 content of 49.08% S9-11 2.382 S9-12 2.419 CAC + 50% S (S°-impregnated S11-5 2.360 CAC at sulfur S11-6 2.397 content of 48.25%) S11-7 0.000 S11-8 2.397

FIG. 7 shows the profile of the discharge curve from GCD (Galvano charge and discharge) tests. A representative cell from each group (S8-8 for the ABC1+60% S group, S9-11 for the ABC1+50% S group and S11-5 for the CAC+50% S group) was discharged and charged in order 3 times at full voltage range (1.4 V to 3.3V). S8-8 (ABC1+60% S) and S9-11 (ABC1+50% S) achieved a capacity of 555.9 mA/g and 614.6 mAh/g respectively, at a current density of 1675 mA/g which is a fast discharge while 511-5 (CAC+50% S) performed at a capacity of 417.6 mAh/g at a current density of 1,675 mA/g. The discharge voltage in FIG. 7 shows a typical voltage profile of the LiS battery at a constant current that has 2 plateaux. The first plateau is ground at 2.3V. The elemental sulfur (S₈) is reduced to S₂ ²⁻ from the 1^(st) plateau to the end of the 2^(nd) plateau at 2.1V. The S₂ ²⁻ is further reduced to S²⁻ at the 2nd transition point. This voltage profile reflects that S₈ embedded in pores of the activated carbon products is broken down to S²⁻ through the serial reduction process when the LiS battery discharges.

Of these cells, S8-8 for the ABC1+60% S group, S9-11 for the ABC1+50% S group, and S11-5 for the CAC+50% S group were continuously cycled at the full voltage range.

FIGS. 8A, 8B, and 8C shows discharge capacity (mAh/g) across 30 cycles of charge and discharge. All of these LiS batteries showed lower capacity retention percentages (39.5% for S8-8 (FIG. 8A), 9.7% for S9-11 (FIG. 8B), and 8.6% for S11-5 (FIG. 8C)).

Table 5 shows each reduction of sulfur from S8 to S1. One sulfur ion at each reduction point is able to react with 2 ions of Li ionized from the Li metal anode during the discharge. The completion of this whole serial reduction includes 1 mole of elemental sulfur (S₈) using 16 moles of elemental Li. The last two reduction steps create Li₂S₂ and Li₂S, which are insoluble in the electrolyte in the LiS battery system. These insoluble polysulphides eventually solidify on the surface of the Li anode. As a result, the availability of sulphur (as an active material impregnated in activated biocarbon) lessens and the Li anode can not be ionized because of the blockage by these insoluble polysulphides (Li₂S₂ and Li₂S). Existing literature (e.g. Nazar et al., 2014, Lithium-sulfur batteries, MRS Bulletin, vol. 39; Lin and Liang, 2015, J. Materials Chemistry A, 3:919-1346; and Fotouhi, et al., 2017, Energies, 10:1937) reveals the fundamental chemistry issues in the LiS battery system.

In this study, LiS batteries were tested in a manner designed to avoid this insoluble polysulfide formation on the Li anode by using an adjusted voltage range from 3.0V to 1.96V, which is called the soluble voltage or 75% Depth of Discharge (DoD). Theoretically, 16 electrons are available at the full voltage range, while 12 electrons are available within the soluble voltage range. This means that the full capacitance will be 25% reduced within the soluble voltage range.

TABLE 5 Reduction of sulfur to polysulfides during discharge in the LiS battery system. Each reduction of Species of polysulfides sulfur to polysulfides after each reduction Solubility in Soluble during discharge during discharge electrolyte voltage range 2Li⁺ + S₈ ⁻ + 2e⁻ Li₂S₈ Soluble Li₂S₂ started forming 2Li⁺ + Li₂S₈ ⁻ + 2e⁻ Li₂S₇ Soluble and depositing Li₂S₂ 2Li⁺ + Li₂S₇ ⁻ + 2e⁻ Li₂S₆ Soluble solids on the Li anode at a 2Li⁺ + Li₂S₆ ⁻ + 2e⁻ Li₂S₅ Soluble voltage of less than 1.960 V 2Li⁺ + Li₂S₅ ⁻ + 2e⁻ Li₂S₄ Soluble 2Li⁺ + Li₂S₄ ⁻ + 2e⁻ Li₂S₃ Soluble 2Li⁺ + Li₂S₃ ⁻ + 2e⁻ Li₂S₂ Insoluble (solids) Li₂S₂ and Li₂S deposit on the Li anode at <1.960 V 2Li⁺ + Li₂S₂ ⁻ + 2e⁻ Li₂S₁ Insoluble (solids) (polysulfide shuttles)

FIG. 9 shows discharge capacity (mAh/g) and capacity retention (%) of S8-5 (another cell representative for the ABC1+60% S group) when tested at a soluble voltage ranging from 1.95V to 3.0V. The capacity averaged 397.0 mAh/g with applied current density (1675 mA/g or 1 C/g), which is a very fast discharge rate. Amazingly, the capacity retention was 98.6% (397.3 mAh/g) at the 100^(th) cycle, indicating nearly no loss in capacitance.

FIG. 10 shows discharge capacity (mAh/g) and capacity retention (%) of S9-12 (another cell representative for the ABC1+50% S group) when also tested at a soluble voltage ranging from 1.96V to 3.0V. The capacity averaged 377.3 mAh/g when applied at a current density (1,675 mA/g or 1.0 C/g) and 422.5 mAh/g when applied at a current density (838 mAh/g or 0.5 C/g), which is used for most practical applications. Once again the capacity retention was high (97.97% at the 100^(th) cycle). This high capacity retention (to 217 cycles) indicates that the formation of insoluble polysulphides was minimized by keeping the discharge within the soluble voltage range.

For the first ten cycles, capacity and retaining percentage were not stable because of an unpredictable power-cut from the test facility. For cycles 11-20, an average capacity of 377.3 mAh/g at a current density of 1675 mA/g (1.0 C/g) was maintained. For cycles 21-42, capacity and retaining percentage were not stable because of several unpredictable power-cuts from the test facility. For cycles 42-217, an average capacity of 422.5 mAh/g at a current density of 838 mA/g (0.5 C/g, used for most practical applications) was maintained. At the 217^(th) cycle, capacity was 404.8 mAh/g and capacity retained was 97.97%.

FIG. 11 shows discharge capacity (mAh/g) and capacity retention (%) of S11-6 (another cell representative for the CAC+50% S group) when tested across the soluble voltage ranging from 1.96V to 3.0V. The capacity averaged 187.7 mAh/g and was maintained over 184 mAh/g when applied at a current density of 1,675 mA/g (or 1.0 C/g) and the capacity retention was 96.0% at the 100th cycle (185.4 mAh/g).

Example 3—Optimization of Ratio of Electrolyte Volume to Sulphur Mass in Cathodes

Most previous literature has reported that a ratio of electrolyte volume to sulphur mass in the cathode strongly affects the cyclability of LiS batteries. When the electrolyte is added in an excess amount in the LiS battery, the excess amount can promote the migration of soluble polysulphides from the cathode to the anode (referred to as the shuttle effect), resulting in poor cyclability. Some literature recommended a minimum ratio ranging from 7 to 39 μL per 1 mg of sulphur in the cathode.

The inventors determined a minimum ratio of electrolyte volume (μL) to sulphur mass (mg) in the cathode, referred to as the ES ratio, using an initial open-circuit potential (OCP) (V), which is also referred to as the equilibrium potential after assembly, and capacity. The goal of this study was to determine the highest capacity at a minimum ES ratio.

FIG. 12A and FIG. 12B show the highest capacity ranging from 600-860 mAh/g and voltage ranging 2.3 to 2.5 V at an ES ratio of 40-75 (μL/mg of sulphur), respectively. FIG. 12C shows that the highest capacity of 600-860 mAh/g was obtained when the initial OCP was in the 2.3-2.5V range. In FIG. 12A, the box shown in broken lines indicates the approximate capacity ranging from 600-860 mAh/g at an ES ratio of 40-75. In FIG. 12B, the box shown in broken lines indicates the approximate voltage ranging from 2.3 to 2.5 at an ES ratio of 40-75. In FIG. 12C, the box shown in broken lines indicates the approximate capacity ranging from 600-860 mAh/g with an OCP of 2.3 to 2.5 V.

Example 4—Performance of 500 Cycled LiS Batteries with Minimum ES Ratio

FIG. 13 shows the initial two cycles of GCD from LiS batteries with sulfur-impregnated ABC1 (65.25% sulfur content) and a minimum electrolyte amount. These cells were tested at a current density of 1 C/g of active sulfur or 1675 mA/g of active sulfur and 100% depth of discharge (DoD) which ranges voltage from 1.7V to 3.0V. LiS battery cells 10-3 and 10-4 with sulfur impregnated ABC1 achieved an initial capacity ranging 688-720 mAh/g tested 1 C/g (1,675 mA/g) at 100% DoD (1.7-3.0V). These cells (CR 2032, 15 mm in diameter) had the following components:

-   -   Sulfur impregnated activated carbon (S-AC): 65.25% in S-AC     -   Cathode: 60 (AC-S):20 (graphite): 20 (PVDF) coated on aluminum         foil     -   Electrolyte: 1 M of lithium bis(trifluoromethane sulfonyl)imide         (LiN(SO₂CF₃)₂) and 1% lithium nitrate in 1,2-dimethoxyethane         (DME) and 1,3-dioxolane (DOXL).     -   Electrolyte amount used: 40-52 μL per 1 mg of active sulfur in         the cathode     -   Separator: Celgard 25 micrometer film     -   Anode: 0.2 mm lithium metal

Table 6 and FIGS. 14A, 14B, 14C and 14D show experimental results for LiS batteries (Cells 10-3 and 10-4) with sulphur impregnated lignin-based activated carbon which were 500 cycled at 1 C/g at 100% DoD and 75% DoD, respectively (following the first two cycles conducted at 100% DoD to establish full capacity for cell 10-3 and shown for both cells in FIG. 13 ). FIG. 14A shows that Cell 10-3 was GCD-cycled 500 times at a current density of 1 C/g and DoD of 75% (voltage ranging from 1.96 to 3.0V, 458 mAh/g) to avoid shuttle effect, while Cell 10-4 GCD-cycled 500 times at a current density of 1 C/g and DoD of 100% (voltage ranging from 1.7 to 3.0V, 497 mAh/g). FIG. 14B shows the capacitance retention (%) of Cells 10-3 and 10-4 which were calculated based on the initial capacity of each cell (688 mAh/g and 67% for 10-3 (75% DoD) and 752 mAh/g and 66% for Cell 10-4 (100% DoD)).

FIGS. 14C and 14D present capacity (mAh/g) (FIG. 14C) and capacity retention (%) (FIG. 14D) from the 40^(th) to 500^(th) cycles, respectively. Cells 10-3 and 10-4 achieved 458 mA (67% capacity retention) at 75% DoD and 497 mAh/g (66% capacity retention) at 100% DoD after 500 cycles, respectively. A capacity decay was −0.0001% per cycle after 40 cycles of Cell 10-3 when tested at 1 C and 75% DoD (1.96-3.0V) which is much slower than a capacity decay (−0.0005% per cycle for Cell 10-4) when tested at 1 C and 100% DoD (1.7-3.0V). The corresponding values represented a decay of −0.0865 mAh/g per cycle for 10-3 at 75% DoD and −0.3922 mAh/g per cycle for 10-4 at 100% DoD.

TABLE 6 LiS batteries with sulfur impregnated lignin-based AC 500 cycled at 1C/g and 100% DoD and 75% DoD, respectively. # of cycles Cell ID Parameters 1 40 100 200 300 400 500 10-3 (75% DoD) Capacity 687.7 487.6 522.0 488.5 514.6 473.7 457.8 (mAh/g) Capacity 100% 70.9% 75.9% 71.0% 74.8% 68.9% 66.6% retention (%) 10-4 Capacity 751.9 668.6 649.1 624.8 547.4 531.8 496.0 (100% DoD) (mAh/g) Capacity 100% 88.9% 86.3% 83.1% 72.8% 70.7% 66.0% retention (%)

Using the capacity decay constants derived from Table 6 and FIGS. 14C and 14D, Table 7 summarizes the estimated capacity of cells 10-3 and 10-4 at the 1000^(th) cycle, assuming consistent performance after the 40^(th) cycle. The predicted capacity of cell 10-3 cycled at 75% DoD after the first two cycles would be higher than cell 10-4 cycled at 100% DoD after 1000 charge and discharge cycles.

TABLE 7 Estimated Capacity of Cells 10-3 and 10-4 after 1000 cycles. Estimated values Inputs Capacity decay Capacity Initial Cap X (# of constants Y (capacity (mAh/g) after Cell ID (mAh/g) cycles) aX b retention %) 1000 cycles LC21-10-3 687.7 1000 −0.0001 0.7459 64.6% 444 (75% DoD) LC21-10-4 751.9 1000 −0.0005 0.9136 41.4% 311 (100% DoD)

To summarize, the highest capacity ranging from 600-860 mAh/g with voltage ranging from 2.3 to 2.5 V was obtained when an ES ratio of 40-75 μL/mg of sulfur in the ABC1-based cathode (or cathode with lignin-based AC) was used. Retention of capacitance can at least in some embodiments be maximized by changing to the soluble voltage range or controlling to 75% of the depth of discharge.

While a number of exemplary aspects and embodiments have been discussed above, those of skill in the art will recognize certain modifications, permutations, additions and sub-combinations thereof. It is therefore intended that the following appended claims and claims hereafter introduced are interpreted to include all such modifications, permutations, additions and sub-combinations as are consistent with the broadest interpretation of the specification as a whole. 

1. A method for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon, the method comprising: dissolving elemental sulphur in liquid ammonia to form a sulphur-ammonia solution; soaking conductive carbon in the sulphur-ammonia solution to embed the conductive carbon with at least a portion of the dissolved sulphur; and recovering the sulphur-embedded conductive carbon.
 2. The method as defined in claim 1, further comprising, after soaking the conductive carbon in the sulphur-ammonia solution but before recovering the sulphur-embedded conductive carbon, removing ammonia from the sulphur-ammonia solution as gaseous ammonia.
 3. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the elemental sulphur is dissolved in the liquid ammonia in a first pressurized environment, optionally wherein the first pressurized environment has a pressure of between about 110 psig and about 135 psig at room temperature.
 4. (canceled)
 5. The method as defined in claim 3, wherein the first pressurized environment has a temperature of between −20° C. and 20° C.
 6. The method as defined in claim 3, wherein the first pressurized environment has a pressure of between 10 and 15 psig at a temperature of about −20° C.
 7. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the step of dissolving elemental sulphur in liquid ammonia further comprises mixing the sulphur-ammonia solution to encourage solubilization of the elemental sulphur in the liquid ammonia.
 8. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the sulphur-ammonia solution comprises between 5% and 30% by weight of dissolved sulphur.
 9. The method as defined in claim 1, further comprising removing any undissolved elemental sulphur from the sulphur-ammonia solution after the step of dissolving the elemental sulphur in the liquid ammonia, optionally by passing the sulphur-ammonia solution through a screen.
 10. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the step of soaking the conductive carbon in the sulphur-ammonia solution is carried out in a second pressurized environment, optionally wherein the second pressurized environment has a pressure of about 110 to about 135 psig at room temperature.
 11. (canceled)
 12. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the liquid ammonia in the sulphur-ammonia solution is removed by evaporating liquid ammonia into gaseous ammonia, optionally wherein the liquid ammonia is removed by depressurizing the second pressurized environment.
 13. (canceled)
 14. The method as defined in claim 12, wherein the ammonia is recovered through a wet collection method.
 15. The method as defined in claim 14, further comprising drying the recovered sulphur-embedded conductive carbon.
 16. The method as defined in claim 12, wherein the ammonia is recovered through a dry collection method.
 17. The method as defined in claim 12, comprising recovering the gaseous ammonia and compressing the recovered gaseous ammonia back to liquid ammonia.
 18. A method for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon, the method comprising: soaking conductive carbon in a sulphur-ammonia solution to embed the conductive carbon with at least a portion of the dissolved sulphur.
 19. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the conductive carbon comprises activated carbon, graphite, graphene, or carbon nanotubes, optionally wherein the conductive carbon comprises activated carbon.
 20. (canceled)
 21. The method as defined in claim 1, wherein the elemental sulphur comprises S₈ and/or granular elemental sulphur; and/or wherein the sulphur-embedded conductive carbon contains between 30% to 85% sulphur by weight, optionally between 50% and 70% sulphur by weight.
 22. (canceled)
 23. A sulphur-embedded conductive carbon produced by the method as defined in claim 1, containing between 30% to 85% sulphur by weight, optionally between 50% and 70% sulphur by weight, optionally wherein the conductive carbon comprises activated carbon.
 24. (canceled)
 25. (canceled)
 26. (canceled)
 27. A metal-sulphur battery comprising the sulphur-embedded conductive carbon produced by a method as defined in claim 1 as a sulphur cathode, optionally wherein the metal sulphur battery is a lithium sulphur battery.
 28. (canceled)
 29. (canceled)
 30. (canceled)
 31. An apparatus for embedding sulphur into conductive carbon, the apparatus comprising: a sulphur dissolving tank comprising a first inlet for flowing liquid ammonia into the sulphur dissolving tank, a second inlet for loading elemental sulphur into the sulphur dissolving tank, and an outlet for withdrawing a sulphur-ammonia solution from the sulphur dissolving tank; and a sulphur impregnating tank in selective fluid communication with the sulphur dissolving tank, the sulphur impregnating tank comprising a first inlet connected to the outlet of the sulphur dissolving tank, a second inlet for adding conductive carbon into the sulphur impregnating tank, a release valve for evaporating the liquid ammonia, and a release conduit for discharging gaseous ammonia. 